Evolution

India has a long history of organized education. The Gurukul system of education is one of the oldest on earth but before that the guru shishya system was extant, in which students were taught orally and the data would be passed from one generation to the next. Gurukuls were traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher’s house or a monastery. Education was free (and often limited to the higher castes), but students from well-to-do families paid Gurudakshina, a voluntary contribution after the completion of their studies. At the Gurukuls, the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, Philosophy, Literature, Warfare, Statecraft, Mathematics, Medicine, Astrology and “History” (“Itihaas”). Only students belonging to Brahmin and Kshatriya communities were taught in these Gurukuls. However, the advent of Buddhism and Jainism brought fundamental changes in access to education with their democratic character.

Up to the 17th century

The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it saw the flourishing of higher education at Nalanda, Takshila, Ujjain, & Vikramshila Universities. Art, Architecture, Painting, Logic, mathematics, Grammar, Philosophy, Astronomy, Literature, Buddhism, Hinduism, Arthashastra (Economics & Politics), Law, and Medicine were among the subjects taught and each university specialized in a particular field of study. Takshila specialized in the study of medicine, while Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge, and housed up to 10,000
students at its peak.

Education under British Rule

British records show that indigenous education was widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The schools were attended by students representative of all classes of society.

Printed books were not used in Indian schools till the 1820s or even later. There were institutions such as Gresham’s college in London that encouraged scientific learning. In fact, there were a number of such academic and scientific societies in England, often supported by Puritan and non-Conformist merchants, the like of which probably did not exist in India.

The entire claim of indigenous education proponents is based on the thesis advocated by
Dharampal which says that there was a general decline in Indian society and economy with the coming of British rule. In the process, indigenous education suffered. This, however, is too broad a generalization, and the exact impact of British rule on different regions at different times has to be studied more carefully before we conclude that the curve everywhere steadily declined. He argues that pre-British schools and colleges were maintained by grants of revenue-free land. The East India Company, with its policy of maximizing land revenue, stopped this and thus starved the Indian education system of its financial resources. Again, we need more detailed evidence to show how far inam lands were taken over by the government. More often, military officers, zamindar and talukdars were deprived of revenue-free land rather than temples, mosques, madrasas. Recent research has revealed that inam lands continued to exist well into the nineteenth century, much more than was previously suspected.

The current system of education, with its western style and content, was introduced & funded by the British in the 19th century, following recommendations by Macaulay. Traditional structures were not recognized by the British government and have been on the decline since. Gandhi is said to have described the traditional educational system as a beautiful tree that was destroyed during British rule.

The British established many colleges like St. Xavier’s College, Sydenham College, Wilson College and Elphinstone College in India.
According to Prof. Emeritus M.G. Sahadevan, F.R.C.P. (London), the first medical college of Kerala was started at Calicut, in 1942-43, during World War II. Due to shortage of doctors to serve the military, the British Government decided to open a branch of Madras Medical College in Malabar, which was under Madras Presidency then. After the war, the medical school at Calicut was closed and the students
continued their studies at Madras Medical College.

After Independence

After independence, education became the responsibility of the states. The Central Government’s only obligation was to co-ordinate in technical and higher education and specifies standards. This continued till 1976, when the education became a joint responsibility of the state and the Centre.

Education Commission

The Education Commission under the Chairmanship of Dr. D. S. Kothari, the then Chairman, University Grants Commission, began its task on October 2, 1964. It consisted of sixteen members, eleven being Indians and five foreign experts. In addition, the Commission had the benefit of discussion with a number of internationally known as consultants in the educational as well as scientific field—-.

After 1976

In 1976, education was made a joint responsibility of the states and the Centre, through a constitutional amendment. The center is represented by Ministry of Human Resource Development’s Department of Education and together with the states; it is jointly responsible for the formulation of education policy and planning. NPE 1986 and revised PoA 1992 envisioned that free and compulsory education should be provided for all children up to 14 years of age before the commencement of 21st century. Government of India made a commitment that by 2000, 6% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) will be spent on education, out of which half would be spent on the Primary education.
The 86th Amendment of the Indian constitution makes education a fundamental right for all children aged 6-14 years. The access to preschool education for children less than 6 years of age was excluded from the provisions, and the supporting legislation has not yet been passed. In November 1998, Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee announced setting up of Vidya Vahini Network to link up universities, UGC and CSIR.

Indian education system

Indian Education System comprises stages called Nursery, Primary, Secondary, Higher Secondary, and Graduation & Post Graduation. Some students go in different stream after Secondary for 3 Years Technical education called Polytechnics.

There are broadly four stages of school education in India, namely primary, upper primary, secondary and higher secondary (or high school). Overall, schooling lasts 12 years, following the “10+2 pattern”.

However, there are considerable differences between the various states in terms of the organizational patterns within these first 10 years of schooling. The government is committed to ensuring universal elementary education (primary and upper primary) education for all children aged 6-14 years of age. Primary school includes children of ages six to eleven, organized into classes one through five. Upper Primary and Secondary school pupils aged eleven through fifteen are organized into classes six through ten, and higher secondary school students ages sixteen through seventeen are enrolled in classes eleven through twelve.

In India, the main types of schools are those controlled by:

• The state government boards like SSLC, in which the vast majority of Indian school-children are enrolled
• The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) board,
• The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) board,

Current management system

Education For All (EFA) is a global movement led by UNESCO (United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), aiming to meet the learning needs of all children, youth and adults by 2015. UNESCO has been mandated to lead the movement and coordinate the international efforts to reach Education for All. Governments, development agencies, civil society, non-government organizations and the media are but some of the partners working toward reaching these goals. The EFA goals also contribute to the global pursuit of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), especially MDG 2 on universal primary education and MDG 3 on gender equality in education, by 2015.The Fast Track Initiative was set up to implement the EFA movement, aiming at “accelerating progress towards quality universal primary education”.UNESCO also produces the annual Education for All Global Monitoring Report.

In 2000, ten years later, the international community met again at the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal, an event which drew 1100 participants. The forum took stock of the fact that many countries were far from having reached the goals established at the World Conference on Education for All in 1990. The participants agreed on the Dakar Framework for Action which re-affirmed their commitment to achieving Education for All by the year 2015, and identified six key measurable education goals which aim to meet the learning needs of all children, youth and adults by 2015. In addition, the forum reaffirmed UNESCO’s role as the lead organization with the overall responsibility of coordinating other agencies and organizations in the attempts to achieve these goals. The six goals established in The Dakar Framework for Action, Education for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments are:

• Goal 1: Expand early childhood care and education
• Goal 2: Provide free and compulsory primary education for all
• Goal 3: Promote learning and life skills for young people and adults
• Goal 4: Increase adult literacy by 50 percent
• Goal 5: Achieve gender parity by 2005, gender equality by 2015
• Goal 6: Improve the quality of education

In order to evaluate each country’s progress with regards to the EFA’s goals set in the Dakar Framework for Action, UNESCO has developed the Education for All Development Index (EDI). The EDI measures four of the six EFA goals, selected on the basis of data availability. Each of the four goals is evaluated using a specific indicator, and each of those components is then assigned an equal weight in the overall index.
The EDI value for a given country is thus the arithmetic mean of the four indicators. Since they are all expressed as percentages, the EDI value can vary from 0 to 100% or, when expressed as a ratio, from 0 to 1. The higher the EDI value, the closer the country is to achieving Education For All as a whole.

The four goals measured in the EDI and their corresponding indicators are:

Goal 1: Expand early childhood care and education – The indicator selected to measure progress towards this goal is the total primary net enrolment ratio (NER), which measures the percentage of primary-school-age children who are enrolled in either primary or secondary school. Its value varies from 0 to 100%. Therefore, a NER of 100% means that all eligible children are enrolled in school.
Goal 4: Increase adult literacy by 50 percent – Although existing data on literacy are not entirely satisfactory, the adult literacy rate for those aged 15 and above is used here as a proxy to measure progress.
Goal 5: Achieve gender parity by 2005, gender equality by 2015: The indicator selected to measure progress towards this goal is the gender-specific EFA index, the GEI, which is itself a simple average of the three gender parity indexes (GPI) for primary education, secondary education and adult literacy, with each being weighted equally. Therefore it encompasses the two sub-goals of the original EFA goal: gender parity (achieving equal participation of girls and boys in primary and secondary education) and gender equality (ensuring that educational equality exists between boys and girls) proxied by the GPI for adult literacy
Goal 6: Improve the quality of education – The survival rate to Grade 5 was selected for as being the best available proxy for assessing the quality component of EDI, as comparable data are available for a large number of countries
The components of EFA to achieve the goals are Universal primary education, Universal elementary education and Non-formal education.

Universal Primary Education

Universal Primary Education (UPE) is a goal stated in many national development plans and pursued with vigour by governments of most developing countries. Primary Education is seen as the first step in laying the foundation for future educational opportunities and life long skills. It is given importance to ensure that by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. Education is vital to meeting all other Millennium Development Goals. Educating children gives the next generation the tools to fight poverty and prevent disease, including malaria and AIDS.

The objectives of primary education are as follows:
Literacy: The child should learn the first language the mother-tongue to a level where he can communicate his ideas easily.
Numeracy: The child should develop ability in four fundamental numerical operations and to be able to apply these to solve problems in his daily life.
Technocracy: The child should learn the method of inquiry in science and should begin to appreciate science and technology.
Nationalism: The child should develop a respect for national symbols like the flag and the anthem and should know about learn to dislike to casteism, untouchability and communalism.
Human dignity: The child should develop healthy attitudes towards human labour and dignity.
Sanitary habits: The child should develop habits of cleanliness and healthful living and an understanding of the proper sanitation and hygiene of the neighborhood.
Aesthetic Sense: The child should acquire a taste for the good and beautiful and should take care of its surroundings.
Cooperative Spirit: The child should learn to cooperate with others and appreciate the usefulness of working together for the common good. Besides these objectives, other desirable qualities are development of character and personality through initiative, leadership, kindness, honesty etc. These should be developed during the primary school stage.
The National policy on Education has also given stress on primary Education mainly on two aspects:
(a) Universal enrolment and universal retention of children up to 14 years of age.
(b) A substantial improvement in the quality of education.

It has laid down that primary education cannot be accepted as complete unless children acquire minimum levels of learning (M.L.L).
There is an urgent need to pay due attention to the constitutional directives with regard to the development and improvement of primary education. It is the duty of everybody to extend full cooperation in achieving the objectives of free and compulsory primary education in our country. Then only the base of democracy would be strengthened.
Since 1999, there has been great progress towards achieving universal primary enrollment due in large part to a pursuit of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Education for All (EFA). The number of primary school age out-of-school children dropped by 42% between 2000 and 2012, despite rapid population growth. Greater than half of countries and regions worldwide have a net enrolment rate of more than 95% and either already have or are close to achieving universal primary education.
However, despite an increase in enrollment over the past decade, global progress has stalled since 2007, and net enrolment or attendance is less than 80 per cent in about 20 countries. Of the 58 million children out of school:

• 23% attended school in the past but left
• 43% are likely to never enter school
• 34% are likely to enter school in the future

Roughly half of all out-of-school children come from just a few countries, many of them characterized by conflict, instability, and extreme poverty. Challenges to achieving universal primary education are exacerbated in unstable regions, as they have greater difficulty in accessing financial support.

The barriers which prevent children around the world from obtaining primary level education are diverse and require tailored responses. Children living in conflict-affected areas account for “just 20% of the world’s children of primary school age but 50% of the world’s out-of-school children.” Additionally, inequalities in wealth significantly impact out-of-school rates. In many countries, children from the poorest 20 per cent of the population are less likely to attend school than those who are better off. Despite overall improvements, girls continue to be at a disadvantage as 53% more than half of the estimated 58 million primary age out-of-school-children are girls.

District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)

It is a programme conceptualized and evolved on the basis of varied experiences the country possesses and supplemented by the experiences of various international agencies directly involved in the funding of primary education projects in the developing countries. This is a Centrally-Sponsored Scheme launched in 1994 as a major initiative to revitalise the primary education system and to achieve the objective of universalisation of primary education. Over a period of time, the sources of funding got diversified and the approaches to plan primary education and to the DPEP became more specific concrete and unified.

However, DPEP is not an effort to develop uniform plans. In fact, this goes against the very premise of the programme. DPEP considers that what is to be done at the district level need to be decided by those at the district level itself. It is envisaged as a centrally sponsored scheme with flexible parameters (Department of Education: 1994). These parameters are meant to ensure that the plan is within the framework of national concerns and priorities.

The objectives of the programme are:

1. to provide access to all children to primary education through formal primary schools or its equivalent through alternatives
2. to reduce overall dropouts at the primary level less than 10 percent
3. to increase achievement levels by 25 percentage points over and above the measured baseline levels
4. to reduce disparities of all types to less than 5 percent

DPEP made a serious effort to translate the idea of decentralization into an operational practice through various steps:

1. the programme identified district as the unit for initiating decentralized educational planning.  Selection of the unit for planning, namely, a district is in line with the under­standing that India had arrived at as per the recommendations of various Committees.
2. the programme attempted to alter the pattern of resource decisions from state level  to local levels;
3. the programme attempted to strengthen the planning process to make it more consultative, participatory and transparent;
4. it tried to provide professional resource support to academic activities through neworganisational arrangements like the BRCs and CRCs;
5. it attempted to provide support to schools through providing contingency grants of Rs.2000/= to each school and Rs.500/= to every teacher annually;
6. the planning process tried to create local level capacity both at the district and sub-district levels.

Major Achievements of DPEP:

1. DPEP has so far opened more than 1,60,000 new schools, including almost 84,000 alternative schooling (AS) centres. The AS centres cover nearly 3.5 million children, while another two lakh children are covered by Bridge Courses of different types;
2. The school infrastructure created under DPEP has been remarkable. Works either complete or in progress include 52758 school buildings, 58,604 additional classrooms, 16,619 resource centers, 29,307 repair works, 64,592 toilets, and 24,909 drinking water facilities,
3. The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) for Phase-I states was around 93 to 95 per cent for the last three years. After the adjustment for the Alternative Schools/Education Guarantee Centers enrolment, the GER in the 2001-02 works out above 100 per cent. In the districts covered under subsequent phases of DPEP, the GER including enrolment of AS/EGS was above 85 per cent;
4. The enrolment of girls has shown significant improvement. In DPEP-I districts, the share of girls enrolment in relation to total enrolment has increased from 48 per cent to 49 per cent, while this increase in the subsequent phases of DPEP districts has been from 46 per cent to 47 per cent;
5. The total number of differently bled children enrolled is now more than 4,20,203 which represents almost 76 per cent of the nearly 5,53,844 differently-abled children identified in the DPEP States;
6. Village Education Committees/School Management Committees have been setup in almost all project villages/habitations/schools,
7. About 1,77,000 teachers, including para-teachers/Shiksha Karmis have been appointed;
8. About 3,380 resource centers at block level and 29,725 centers at cluster level have been set-up for providing academic support and teacher training facilities.

Universal Elementary Education

Universalisation of Elementary Education
Sara Shipshape Hinayana (SSA) is a programmer for Universal Elementary Education. This programme is also an attempt to provide an opportunity for improving human capabilities to all children through provision of community -owned quality education in a mission mode. It is a response to the demand for quality basic education all over the country.

Main features

1. Programme with a clear time frame for universal elementary education.
2. A response to the demand for quality basic education all over the country.
3. An opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education.
4. A expression of political will for universal elementary education across the country.
5. A partnership between the central, state and the local government.
6. An opportunity for states to develop their own vision of elementary education.
7. An effort at effective involving the Panchyati Raj Institutions, school management Committees, village and urban slum level Education Committees, parent’s Teachers’ Associations, Mother-Teacher Associations, Tribal Autonomous councils and other grassroots level structures in the management of elementary schools.

Aims

1. To provide useful and elementary education for all children in the 6-14 age group.
2. To bridge social, regional and gender gaps with the active participation of community in the management of schools.
3. To allow children to learn about and master their natural environment in order to develop their potential both spiritually and materially.
4. To inculcate value-based learning this allows children an opportunity to work for each other’s well being rather than to permit mere selfish pursuits.
5. To realize the importance of Early Childhood Care and education and looks at the 0-14 age as a continuum.

Objectives

1. All children in school. Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate School, ‘Back-to-School’  camp by 2003.
2. All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.
3. All children complete of elementary schooling by 2010.
4. Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on education for life.
5. Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at elementary  education level by 2010.
6. Universal retention by 2010

Padhe Bharat Badhe Bharat

This is a nationwide sub-programme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. Children who fail to read in early education lag behind in other subjects. The programme is designed to improve comprehensive early reading, writing and early mathematics programme for children in Classes I and II. The programme will not only provide print rich environment, timely distribution of books but will also include new teacher mentoring and appraisal system.

SSA has been operational since 2000-2001 to provide for a variety of interventions for universal access and retention, bridging of gender and social category gaps in elementary education and improving the quality of learning. SSA interventions include inter alia, opening of new schools and alternate schooling facilities, construction of schools and additional classrooms, toilets and drinking water, provisioning for teachers, regular teacher in service training and academic resource support, free textbooks& uniforms and support for improving learning achievement levels / outcome. With the passage of the RTE Act, changes have been incorporated into the SSA approach, strategies and norms.

The changes encompass the vision and approach to elementary education, guided by the following principles:

• Holistic view of education, as interpreted in the National Curriculum Framework 2005, with implications for a systemic revamp of the entire content and process of education with significant implications for curriculum, teacher education, educational planning and management.
• Equity, to mean not only equal opportunity, but also creation of conditions in which the disadvantaged sections of the society – children of SC, ST, Muslim minority, landless agricultural workers and children with special needs, etc. – can avail of the opportunity.
• Access, not to be confined to ensuring that a school becomes accessible to all children within specified distance but implies an understanding of the educational needs and predicament of the traditionally excluded categories – the SC, ST and others sections of the most disadvantaged groups, the Muslim minority, girls in general, and children with special needs.
• Gender concern, implying not only an effort to enable girls to keep pace with boys but to view education in the perspective spelt out in the National Policy on Education 1986 /92; i.e. a decisive intervention to bring about a basic change in the status of women.
• Centrality of teacher, to motivate them to innovate and create a culture in the classroom, and beyond the classroom, that might produce an inclusive environment for children, especially for girls from oppressed and marginalised backgrounds.
• Moral compulsion is imposed through the RTE Act on parents, teachers, educational administrators and other stakeholders, rather than shifting emphasis on punitive processes. Convergent and integrated system of educational management is pre-requisite for implementation of the RTE law.

New Innovations and Alternative Strategies

• Disaggregated target setting and decentralised microplanning, which will provide the framework of universal access and community participation.
• Strengthening alternative channels of schooling such as the non-formal education (NFE) system for those who cannot avail of conventional full-time schooling.
• Introduction of minimum levels of learning (MLLs) at primary and upper primary stages to improve learner’s achievement.
• Improvement of school facilities by revamping the scheme of Operation Blackboard (OB) and connecting it to the MLL strategy.
• Establishing linkages between programmes of early childhood care and education (ECCE), primary education, literacy and UEE.
• Addressing the more difficult aspects of access, particularly to girls, disadvantaged groups and out-of-school children.
• Restructuring of teacher training in view of the changed strategies and programmes.
• Availing of external financial support for basic education.
• Launching the National Elementary Education Mission (NEEM).

Accreditation

Accreditations for universities in India are required by law unless it was created through an act of Parliament. Without accreditation, the government notes “these fake institutions have no legal entity to call themselves as University/Vishwavidyalaya and to award ‘degree’ which are not treated as valid for academic/employment purposes.” The University Grants Commission Act 1956 explains, “The right of conferring or granting degrees shall be exercised only by a University established or incorporated by or under a Central Act Carlo bon tempo, or a State Act, or an Institution deemed to be University or an institution specially empowered by an Act of the Parliament to confer or grant degrees. Thus, any institution which has not been created by an enactment of Parliament or a State Legislature orhas not been granted the status of a Deemed to be University is not entitled to award a degree.” Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by autonomous institutions established by the University Grants Commission.

• All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
• Distance Education Council (DEC)
• Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)
• Bar Council of India (BCI)
• National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC)
• National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)
• Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)
• Medical Council of India (MCI)
• Pharmacy Council of India (PCI)
• Indian Nursing Council (INC)
• Dental Council of India (DCI)
• Central Council of Homeopathy (CCH)
• Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM)
• Veterinary council of India (VCI)

Accreditation for higher learning is overseen by autonomous institutions established by the University Grants Commission

Criticism of Indian Education System

Modern education in India is often criticized for being based on rote learning. Emphasis is laid on passing examinations with high percentage. Very few institutes give importance to developing personality and creativity among students. Recently, the country has seen a rise in instances of student suicides due to low marks and failures, especially in metropolitan cities, even though such cases are very rare.

The presence of a number of education boards (SSLC, ICSE, CBSE, IB and IGCSE) leads to non-uniformity. ICSE and CBSE boards are sometimes favorably considered at the time of admission, although it cannot be said with certainty that their syllabuses are harder. A large number of SSLC (State board) students therefore complain that their ICSE and CBSE counterparts are given an advantage during college admissions, which are extremely competitive and sought for.

Most colleges account for these differences during admissions. The syllabi prescribed by the various boards are accused of being archaic and some textbooks (mostly ones written for the SSC) contain many errors. The boards are recently trying to improve quality of education by increasing percentage of practical and project marks. However, critics say even this is memorized by students (or even plagiarized). This is attributed to pressure from parents who are eager to see high scores more than overall development. Many people also criticize the caste, language and religion-based reservations in education system.

Many allege that very few of the weaker castes get the benefit of reservations and that forged caste certificates abound. Educational institutions also can seek religious minority (non-Hindu) or linguistic minority status. In such institutions, 50% of the seats are reserved for students belonging to a particular religion or having particular mother-tongue(s).

For example, many colleges run by the Jesuits and Salesians have 50% seats reserved for Roman Catholics. In case of languages, an institution can declare itself linguistic minority only in states in which the language is not official language. For example, an engineering college can declare itself as linguistic-minority (Hindi) institution in the state of Maharashtra (where official state language is Marathi), but not in Madhya Pradesh or Uttar Pradesh (where the official state language is Hindi).

These reservations are said to be a cause of heartbreak among many. Many students with poor marks manage to get admissions, while meritorious students are left out. Critics say that such reservations may eventually create rifts in the society. The general corruption prevalent in India is also an issue in the Education system. Engineering, medical and other lucrative seats are sometimes sold for high prices and ridden with nepotism and power-play. Student politics is also a major issue, as many institutions are run by politicians.

Ragging is a major problem in colleges, many students die due to ragging every year. Some state governments have made ragging a criminal offense. Expenditure on education is also an issue which comes under the scanner.

According to the Kothari commission led by Dr Vijay Kothari in 1966, expenditure on education has to be minimum 6% of the GDP. Whereas in 2004 expenditure on education stood at 3.52% of the GDP and in the eleventh plan it is estimated to be around 4%. The “sarva shikshan abhyan” has to receive sufficient funds from the government to impart quality education.

References

N. V. Varghese, National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA), New Delhi – 110016 (India) in Journal of Educational Planning and Administration (JEPA), October 1994, No. 4, Volume VIII, New Delhi, India

Trilochan Sastry , Ankita Agarwal and Ayesha Jaggi Achieving universal primary education: a collaborative model tejas@iimb, An IIMB Management Review initiative

K. Gopalan, Indian Strategies to Achieve Universalisation of Elementary Education, http://ignca.nic.in/cd_06020.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarva_Shiksha_Abhiyan

Dr.Rameshwari Pandya & Dr. Avani Maniar, Non formal education: an Indian context The M. S. University of Baroda, Vadodara, Indiaui

Assignment

1. Do you agree with the criticism on education system in India presented here? Justify your answer (whether yes or no) with suitable empirical evidences.
2. What changes do you suggest to ICAR for changes in education system of SAUs.